Oxford 102 grammar lessons

ess', or `just the same' in the main clause to add emphasis to the contrast.
	Although I was shocked, I still couldn't blame him.
	Although his company is profitable, it nevertheless needs to face up to some serious problems.
	Although she hated them, she agreed to help them just the same.
	 When the subject of the contrast clause and the main clause are the same, you can often omit the subject and the verb `be' in the contrast clause.
	Although poor, we still have our pride. (Although we are poor...)
	Though dying of cancer, he painted every day. (Though he was dying of cancer...)
	2 	 Another way of making a contrast is to use `despite' or `in spite of', followed by a noun group.
	Despite the difference in their ages they were close friends.
	In spite of poor health, my father was always cheerful.
	 WARNING: You say `in spite of' but `despite' without `of'.
	3 	 You can also use an `-ing' form after `despite' or `in spite of'.
	Despite working hard, I failed my exams.
	Conservative MPs are against tax rises, in spite of wanting lower inflation.
	4 	 You can also use `despite the fact that' or `in spite of the fact that', followed by a clause.
	Despite the fact that it sounds like science fiction, most of it is technically possible at this moment.
	They ignored this order, in spite of the fact that they would probably get into trouble.
	 It is possible to omit `that', especially in spoken English.
	He insisted on playing, in spite of the fact he had a bad cold.
	Unit 100 Manner clauses
	Main points
	 	 * You use manner clauses to talk about how something is done.
	 	 * Manner clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as `as', `as if', `as though', or `like'.
	 	 * A manner clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. The manner clause always comes after the main clause.
	1 	 When you want to say how someone does something, or how something is done, you use `as'.
	He behaves as he does, because his father was really cruel to him.
	The bricks are still made as they were in Roman times.
	 You often use `just', `exactly', or `precisely' in front of `as' for emphasis.
	It swims on the sea floor just as its ancestors did.
	I like the freedom to plan my day exactly as I want.
	Everything was going precisely as she had planned.
	2 	 When you want to indicate that the information in the manner clause might not be true, or is definitely not true, you use `as if' or `as though'.
	Almost as if she'd read his thought, she straightened her back and returned to her seat.
	Just act as though everything's normal.
	 After `as if' or `as though', you often use a past tense even when you are talking about the present, to emphasize that the information in the manner clause is not true. In formal English, you use `were' instead of `was'.
	You talk about him as if he were dead.
	It is Malcolm's 37th birthday, but he and his mother both behave as if he were 7.
	3 	 You also use `the way (that)', `in a way (that)', or `in the way (that)' to talk about how someone does something, or how something is done.
	I was never allowed to sing the way I wanted to.
	They did it in a way that I had never seen before.
	We make it move in the way that we want it to.
	4 	 You can use `how' in questions and reported questions to talk about the method used to do something, and sometimes to indicate your surprise that it was possible to do it.
`How did he get in?' - `He broke a window.'
I wondered how he could afford a new car. 
See also Unit 68 for more information on `..as if..' and `..as though..'
Sometimes, you can use `how' to talk about the manner in which someone does something.
I watched how he did it, then tried to copy him.
Tell me how he reacted when he saw you.
UNIT 101 CHANGING SENTENCE FOCUS
Main points
* You can sometimes change the focus of a sentence by moving part of the sentence to the front.
* You can also change the focus of a sentence by using an expression such as `The fact is', `The thing is', or `The problem is'.
* You can also use impersonal `it' to change the focus of a sentence.
1. In most affirmative clauses, the subject of the verb comes first.
They went to Australia in 1956.
I've no idea who it was.
However, when you want to emphasize another part of the sentence, you can put that part first instead.
In 1956 they went to Australia.
Who it was I've no idea.
2. One common way of giving emphasis is by placing an adverbial at the beginning of the sentence.
At eight o'clock I went down for my breakfast.
For years I'd had to hide what I was thinking.
Note that after adverbials of place and negative adverbials, you normally put the subject after the verb.
She rang the bell for Sylvia. In came a girl she had not seen before.
On no account must they be let in.
After adverbials of place, you can also put the subject before the verb. You must do so, if the subject is a pronoun.
The door opened and in she came.
He'd chosen Japan, so off we went to the Japanese Embassy.
3. When you want to say that you do not know something, you can put a reported question at the beginning of the sentence.
What I'm going to do next I don't quite know.
How he managed I can't imagine.
4. Another way of focusing on information is to use a structure which introduces what you want to say by using `the' and a noun, followed by `is'. The nouns most commonly used in this way are:
answer, conclusion, fact, point, problem, question, rule, solution, thing, trouble, truth
The second part of the sentence is usually a `that'-clause or a `wh'-clause, although it can also be a `to'-infinitive clause or a noun group.
The problem is that she can't cook.
The thing is, how are we going to get her out?
The solution is to adopt the policy which will produce the greatest benefits.
The answer is planning, timing, and, above all, practical experience. 
It is also common to use a whole sentence to introduce information in following sentences. See Unit 102 for more information.
5. You can also focus on information by using impersonal `it', followed by `be', a noun group, and a relative clause.
The noun group can be the subject or object of the relative clause.
It was Ted who broke the news to me.
It is usually the other vehicle that suffers most.
It's money that they want.
It was me Dookie wanted.
There are many other ways of focusing on information:
Ted was the one who broke the news to me.
Money is what we want.
What we want is money.
6. You can also focus on the information given in the other parts of a clause, or a whole clause, using impersonal `it'. In this case, the second part of the sentence is a `that'-clause.
It was from Francis that she first heard the news.
It was meeting Peter that really started me off on this new line of work.
Perhaps it's because he's a misfit that I get along with him.
UNIT 102 COHESION
Main points
* You can use pronouns and determiners to refer back to something that has already been mentioned.
	 	 * You use coordinating conjunctions to link clauses.
1. When you speak or write, you usually need to make some connection with other things that you are saying or writing. The most common way of doing this is by referring back to something that has already been mentioned.
2. One way of referring back to something is to use a personal pronoun such as `she', `it', or `them', or a possessive pronoun such as `mine' or `hers'.
My father is fat. He weighs over fifteen stone.
Mary came in. She was a good-looking woman.
`Have you been to London ?' - `Yes, it was very crowded.'
`Have you heard of David Lodge ?' - `Yes, I've just read a novel of his.'
`Would you mind moving your car , please?' - `It's not mine.'
3. You can also use a specific determiner such as `the' or `his' in front of a noun to refer back to something.
A man and a woman were walking up the hill. The man wore shorts, a T-shirt, and basketball sneakers. The woman wore a print dress.
`Thanks,'said Brody. He put the telephone down, turned out the light in his office, and walked out to his car.
4. The demonstratives `this', `that', `these' and `those' are also used to refer back to a thing or fact that has just been mentioned.
In 1973 he went on a caravan holiday . At the beginning of this holiday he began to experience pain in his chest.
There's a lot of material there. You can use some of that.
5. The following general determiners can also be used to refer back to something: no, the, each every, other, both, either, neither
Five officials were sacked. Another four were arrested.
There are more than two hundred and fifty species of shark, and every one is different.
6. Another common way of making connections in spoken or written English is by using one of the following coordinating conjunctions: And, nor, so, yet, but, or, then
	Anna had to go into town and she wanted to go to Bride Street.
	I asked if I could borrow her bicycle but she refused.
	He was only a boy then, yet he was not afraid.
You can use a coordinating conjunction to link clauses that have the same subject. When you link clauses which have the same subject, you do not always need to repeat the subject in the second clause.
	She was born in Budapest and raised in Manhattan.
	He didn't yell or scream.
	When she saw Morris she went pale, then blushed.
7. Most subordinating conjunctions can also be used to link sentences together, rather than to link a subordinate clause with a main clause in the same sentence.
`When will you do it?' - `When I get time.'
`Can I borrow your car?' - `So long as you drive carefully.'
We send that by airmail. Therefore , it's away on Thursday and our client gets it on Monday.
8. When people are speaking or writing, they often use words that refer back to similar words, or words that refer back to a whole sentence or paragraph.
	Everything was quiet . Everywhere there was the silence of the winter night.
	`What are you going to do?' - `That's a good question.'