Tiếng Anh - Chapter 6: Some fundamental problems in the study of transfer

nsfer, since native language influence interacts with nonstructural factors.Structure (tagmeme) is a unity of form (some definite pattern) and function (some definite use).What is structure?14Structural and nonstructural factorsDiscourse involves much more than what a purely structural analysis covers.One problematic relation between structural and nonstructural factors is language distance, or the degree of similarities between two languages.15Comparison of performancesA contrastive analysis is a necessary condition to establish the likelihood of transfer, but it is not a sufficient condition. * transfer interacts with other factors * explanations based only on contrastive analyses are sometimes misleading Comparisons of performances of two or more groups of learners with different native languages are necessary.16Comparison of performancesExample : I know the man that John gave the book to him . ( an error made by Persian speakers)- Contrastive analysis: Persian relative clauses often have resumptive pronouns  error- Comparison of performances : such errors are also made by speakers of languages not having resumptive pronouns in equivalent relative clause.17Comparison of performancesIn some cases the need for a formal comparison of performances is not very great.Two kinds of comparison:* Implicit comparison: Certain spelling errors or grammatical errors reflect characteristic problems of speakers of particular native languages.E.g. : the spelling of playing as blaying is more likely to be the spelling error of an Arabic speaker than of a Spanish speaker.18Comparison of performancesExplicit comparison: an error is rather common among speakers of several different native languages.E.g. : the omission of articles is common among speakers of several languages. ( Picture is very dark )* While explicit comparisons are often desirable in determining negative transfer, they are indispensable in determining positive transfer.19Comparison of performancesIn some cases the need for formal comparison of performances is not very great.While formal comparison of spelling and verbs errors are possible, the distinctiveness of the errors amounts to an implicit comparison. In this case, explicit comparisons are preferable.While explicit comparisons are often desirable in determining negative transfer, they are indispensable in determining positive transfer.20Comparison of performancesSome studies suggest that some positive transfer occurs even when the contrastive prediction is stated in a very crude way.Other studies suggest that schooling may decrease - not increase - the likelihood of negative transfer.21Some fundamental problems in the study of transferProblems of prediction22Forecast and explanationsThe literature on contrastive analysis frequently refers to predictions that are determined by cross-linguistic comparisons.In reality, however, the “predictions” of learners’ behavior are often derived after the fact: What counts as a prediction is frequently based on data about learner performances already known to a linguist who has interpreted the data record with the help of cross-linguistic comparisons. (Wardhaugh 1970)23A record of errors in French made by English-speaking students in previous year can serve as a predictor of errors that English-speaking students will make in a French course next year.However, such predictions are clearly different from the kind made before the actual performance of learners is investigated.24A good contrastive analysis should make it easier to explain why transfer will or will not occur in any given instance.25A classification of outcomesThe following classification offers some idea of the varied effects that cross-linguistic similarities and differences can produce:261. Positive transferThe effects of positive transfer are only determinable through comparisons of the success of groups with different native languagesSimilarities between native language and target language vocabulary can reduce the time needed to develop good reading comprihension.27Similarities between vowel systems can make the identification of vowel sound easier.Similarities between the writing systems can give learners a head start in reading a writing in the target language.28Future research is likely to show that cross-linguistic similarities in other areas will also promote acquisition.292. Negative transferNegative transfer involves divergences from norms in the target language, it is often relatively easy to identifyNegative transfer tends to be equated with production errors.30A. UnderproductionLearner may produce very few or no examples of a target language structure.There is good evidence for one form of underproduction related to language distance: avoidance (If learners sense that particular structures in the target language are very different from counterparts in the native language, they may try to avoid using those structure).31For example: 	Schacter found that Chinese and Japanese students of ESL tended to use fewer relatice clause than did students whose languages have relative clause structures more like those of English.32B. OverproductionOverproduction is something simply a consequence of underproduction.For example, in an effort to avoid relative clauses, Japanese students may violate norms of written prose in English by writing too many simple sentences33C. Production errors1.Substitutions	Involving a use of native language forms in the target language.	Now I live home with my parents. But sometimes I must go bort.342.Calques	Errors that reflect very closely a native language structure.Vamos rapido a poner el fuego afueraLet’s quickly put the fire out3. Alterations of structure35D. Misinterpretation	Native language structures can influence the interpretation of target message, and sometimes that influence leads to learners inferring something very different from what 	speakers of the target language would infer.363. Differing lengths of acquisition	Several years of study of one foreign languge can greatly reduce the time needed to acquire a similar language.37Valid generalization about transfer  Valid generalization about the nature of language/ language universals.For example, all languages have nouns and verbs, or all spoken languages have consonants and vowels. Language universalsLinguistic typologiesUniversalist assumptionsIV. PROBLEMS OF GENERALIZATION38Language universals : Two of the most distinctive approaches to the studies of universalsChomskyan approachGreenbergian approachThe intensive analysis of one language to identify abstract principles of a Universal Grammar. Various characteristics of the syntax of standard written English.-Cross-linguistic comparisons.-The cross-linguistic variations seen in particular structures : word order.39Language universalsThe Chomskyan approach advances many claims about language structure, language acquisition and linguistic theory.One key hypothesis : Universal Grammar is a biological inheritance which simply requires activation in child language acquisition.Infants’ efforts to walkInfants’ efforts to talkBiological “program”40Language universalsChomskyan analysesEmpirical investigations insecond language acquisition lead toThe extent to which Universal Grammar is still “available” to guide the progress of adults learning a second language.determine41Language universalsThe Greenbergian approach have provided the basic for much research on grammatical theory and language acquisition.The basic word order of English :S V OGrammar Subjects Verb/Verb phrase ObjectEx : John bought the car.42Language universalsGreenberg found two orders also to be common :Order 	 Examples	 Cross-linguistic frequencyVSO	 Irish, Classical Arabic	Somewhat commonSVO	 English, Russian	Very commonSOV	 Persian, Japanese	Very commonVOS	 Malagasy	RareOVS	 Hixkaryana	Very rareOSV	 Apurina	Very rare43Linguistic universalsThree word order types (SVO, VSO, SOV) account for the vast majority of languages is itself highly significant.Other word-order patterns were often predict from basic word order.44 * Typology, the study of such classifications, benefits work in many fields, including historical linguistics, grammatical theory, and contractive analysis.Language Inflectional Basic Resumptive Lexical tones ? morphology word order Pronouns? English Simple SVO	 No	NoArabic Complex VSO Yes 	NoThai	 Negligible SVO No YesLinguistic typologies45Linguistic typologies* Typological analyses contribute to the study of transfer in 3 ways :They provide a basis for estimating language distance.Typological analyses encourage the study of transfer in term of systemic influences.Typological analyses allow for the clearer understanding of relations between transfer and developmental sequences46Typologically common patterns:in first language acquisition, are both as errors and as correct forms.in the second language acquisition, the negative patterns may sometimes reflect native language influences, sometimes developmental factors, and sometimes perhaps both transfer and developmental factors.Linguistic typologies47Linguistic typologiesTypologically common features gives clues to universal preferences in linguistic structure.Ex: The five-vowel system of Spanish is common The eleven- vowel system of Vietnam is rare.48Universalist assumption- One of the most important is the assumption that there are categories applicable to the analysis of all language.Ex: Greenberg’s classification of language in term of basic word order assumes that categories such as “Subject”are universal.- Another crucial universalist assumption in typological and contrastive analyses  “meaning” that are equivalent in the discourse and semantic system of all human language.49Universalist assumptionThere is one assumption of universalist analyses that is found in many other kinds of research- that a reasonably good sample of behavior allow for reasonable inferences about all such behavior.50THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION!!!51