English Grammar

a hundred pieces on the floor. 
The mouse snatched up the larger pieces, and it left the crumbs for the cockroaches. 
The mouse snatched up the larger pieces, leaving the crumbs for the cockroaches. 
The little boy was lost and afraid. He called for his mother. 
The little boy, lost and afraid, called for his mother. 
Lost and afraid, the little boy called for his mother. 
Parenthetical Statements 
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Statements in parentheses ( ) can be ignored when it comes to Subject-Verb agreement. 
My husband (the doctor) works at Community Hospital. 
My best friend (the one in the green shirt) wants to meet you. 
Sometimes commas are used in place of parentheses: 
His brother, John, lives in Sacramento. 
My sister, who works in Miami, is visiting me this week. 
Mr. Johnson, however, was not amused. 
The teacher, along with her students, is coming to the party. 
Prepositional phrases usually have no effect on Subject-Verb agreement. 
The men in the car were shouting wildly. 
The men in the cars were shouting wildly. 
The books on the shelf next to the window are mine. 
However, in some quantifying expressions, prepositional phrases do make a difference. 
A lot of people are traveling to Belize these days. 
A lot of milk was left in the refrigerator last night. 
Some of the apples were rotten. 
Some of the wine is too old. 
None of the water is safe to drink. 
Relative clauses can have an effect, depending on the meaning. 
Mary is the one who takes care of applications. 
Mary is one of the people who take care of applications. 
One of the men who live there is deranged. 
Absolutes 
Absolutes show a special “how” relationship between two sentences. The two sentences are 
combined in a way that subordinates one to the other. 
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For example, 
Mary was sitting at her desk. Her head was slightly lowered over a pile of chemistry notes. 
Mary was sitting at her desk, her head slightly lowered over a pile of chemistry notes. 
In order to construct an absolute, follow these steps: 
1. Check to see if there is a “be” verb in the sentence you want to subordinate. 
2. If there is a “be” verb, eliminate it and combine the sentences with a comma. 
Julie accepted the award. Tears were streaming down her face. 
Julie accepted the award, tears streaming down her face. 
3. If the subjects are the same, delete the subject of the absolute as well. For example, 
Julie accepted the award. Julie was overcome with emotion. 
Julie accepted the award, overcome with emotion. 
OR Overcome with emotion, Julie accepted the award. 
4. If there is no “be” verb, change the main verb of the subordinating sentence into its -ing 
form. Then eliminate similar subjects and combine sentences with a comma. 
Johnny ran after the bus. He waved his hands and whistled. 
Johnny ran after the bus, waving his hands and whistling. 
OR: Waving his hands and whistling, Johnny ran after the bus. 
5. If there is a “possessive” relationship between the two sentences, use possessive pronouns 
(its his, their, etc.) to indicate the relationship between the subjects. 
Active: 
The cat confronted the burglar. It arched its back and bared its teeth. 
The cat confronted the burglar, arching its back and baring its teeth. 
Passive: 
The cat confronted the burglar. Its back was arched and teeth were bared. 
The cat confronted the burglar, its back arched and teeth bared. 
Real Conditionals 
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Conditional sentences express a choice and the possible consequences of that choice. 
There are three types of conditional sentences: Real, Unreal and Unreal Past. The first type is the 
easiest to learn. It involves a present choice and a future consequence. 
If you drive north for three miles, you will get to Columbus. 
If he doesn’t exercise, Fred will gain weight. 
If you purchase a raffle ticket, you might win a car. 
Real conditional sentences contain two parts, the if clause, and the result clause. 
The if clause indicates the choice and is expressed in present tense. It indicates a choice and can 
be either positive or negative. If statements can also imply the opposite choice and result. 
If you study hard you will pass the test. 
If you don’t study hard, you could fail. 
(Choice and possible result) 
(Implied opposite choice and result) 
The result clause indicates the consequence or possible consequence, and is expressed in future 
tense or with modals can, could or might. 
If clause 
If you eat your spinach, 
If I quit my job, 
If Troy moves to Hollywood, 
Result clause 
you will grow stronger. 
I can spend more time with the kids. 
he might become a movie star. 
Present unreal conditionals 
Present unreal conditionals indicate a situation which is only imagined or in some-one's mind. 
For instance: 
I wish I had a pony. 
If I had a pony, I would ride it every day. 
(I don’t really have a pony.) 
(I imagine what I would do.) 
To form present unreal conditionals, use past tense in the if clause and would + verb in the 
main clause. 
A: What would you do if you had a million dollars? 
B: If I had a million dollars, I would invest it in the stock market. 
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A: What would you do if you didn’t have to come to school today? 
B: If I didn’t have to come to school, I would go to the amusement park. 
For present unreal conditionals, it is common to use were in place of all forms of “be” in the if 
clause (regardless of the subject). 
If I were you, I would get a lawyer. 
If I were a lawyer, I would not charge you. 
If she were a lawyer, Sheila would be rich. 
Sometimes could can be used in place of would in the main clause: 
If I had more free time, I could travel around the world. 
Past Conditionals 
Past conditionals are used when talking about decisions or actions that you wish had been 
different. They indicate hypothetical situations from the past using “if” statements. 
To form the past conditional, use past perfect in the “if” clause. Verbs in the main clause will 
depend on whether you are referring to the present or the past. 
For example* 
I wish I hadn’t drunk so much last night. Now I feel terrible. 
If I hadn’t drunk so much last night, I wouldn’t feel so terrible now. 
(past action and present consequence) 
I wish I hadn’t drunk so much last night. I felt terrible then. 
If I hadn’t drunk so much last night, I wouldn’t have felt so terrible. 
(past action and past consequence) 
I wish I had left home sooner. I was late for the party last night. 
If I had left home sooner, I wouldn’t have been late for the party. 
(past action and past consequence) 
I wish I had left home sooner. Now I am stuck in traffic. 
If I had left home sooner, I wouldn’t be stuck in traffic. 
(past action and present consequence) 
Present Wishes 
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Present wishes indicate something that is “contrary to fact.” That is, wishes are something that is 
untrue but desired. For example, 
I wish that I had a sports car. 
I wish that I were a doctor. 
(The truth is I don’t have a sports car.) 
(I’m really not a doctor.) 
For present wishes, the past tense is used in the that clause, because it indicates a situation that is 
only imagined. Sometimes the word that is omitted. 
She wishes (that) she had a diamond ring. 
He wishes (that) he were rich. 
To express possibility (can) and future intention (will), use the modals could and would 
respectively. 
She wishes that she could sing. 
They wish that she would stop. 
When a “be” verb is required, the word were is used, regardless of the subject. 
We wish you were here. 
I wish (that) I were taller. 
Past Wishes 
Past wishes indicate things we imagine would have been different in the past, although we cannot 
change them. For past wishes, use the past perfect in the that clause. 
I wish (that) I had gone to Cincinnati 
He wishes that he had been elected chairman. 
They wish they had won the lottery. 
(I really didn’t go.) 
(He wasn’t elected.) 
(They didn’t win.) 
Hope vs. Wish 
Wish is most commonly used in hypothetical (or imagined) situations: 
I wish that I had a dog. (I don't really have a dog, but if I did, I would be happy.) 
I wish (that) you were here. (Unfortunately, you're not, and I miss you.) 
Sometimes wish is used in greeting and expressions of goodwill: 
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We wish you a "Merry Christmas." 
They wished him "Happy Birthday." 
Wish me luck. 
(S V IO DO) 
Hope can also be used in expressions of goodwill, but the grammar is slightly different: 
I hope (that) you have a Merry Christmas. 
I hope (that) you had a nice Birthday. 
(some time in the future) 
(some time in the past) 
Hope can be used to specify a desired outcome. For future hopes, the possibilities remain open, 
but for past hopes, the outcome has usually been determined already. 
I hope you can come to the party on Saturday. 
I was hoping that you would come to the party. 
I had hoped to see you at the party on Saturday. 
I hope to get an A on the exam. 
I hope it doesn't rain tomorrow. 
He hopes to be elected President. 
She hoped you wouldn't find her. 
(future possibility) 
(but you didn't make it) 
(but I didn't) 
(it is still possible) 
(although it might) 
(it could happen) 
(but you probably did) 
Wish and hope are also used in certain types of requests and pleasantries. In such situations, 
wish carries a more definite and formal tone. 
I wish to see the doctor. 
I hope to see you again. 
(right now) 
(anytime in the future) 
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